Hormones

Fox Chapter 11, part of chapters 2, 9, 19, 20

Introduction

Metazoans (animals with more cells than protozoans) require systems of integration
INTEGRATION: Hormones, paracrine (local) & nervous system
"endocrine" - ductless, into blood stream
vs. exocrine (like digestive - saliva etc.)

Three steps:
cells with blood vessels for release
hormone transported in the circulation
target cell with receptor

Two mechanisms
(1) receptor molecule on membrane
(2) enter cell and bind receptor

Overview

TRANSPARENCY (From intro bio)

Fig. 11.1
I. Traditionally, this material starts with a picture of the major glands

II. Then it covers Pituitary three ways
(1) posterior pituitary
(2) anterior pituitary as "master gland" (and the other glands it controls)
(3) anterior pituitary (affects not mediated through other glands)

III. Then it covers other glands (not controlled by the pituitary)

IV. I will then give you a dose of "signal transduction" concentrating on steroids, thyroid and retinoic acid.

V. I will cover sex hormones in detail last (after glossing over them under II.(3) [above])

A later lecture outline, Reproduction, will take off beyond III. and V.

Posterior pituitary

Fig. 11.13
(related to kidney coverage)
neurosecretion from hypothalamus (peptides)
"suprachiasmatic" means over the optic chiasm
"paraventricular" means near the (third) ventricle
oxytocin (milk, delivery)
(synthetic to induce labor)
Covered in Excretion lecture: ADH action on kidney
vasopressin (ADH), H2O and blood pressure
alcohol, caffein inhibit anti [diuresis] hormone

Anterior pituitary

Fig. 11.15
Median eminence from hypothalamus to pituitary
Secretion of releasing (and inhibiting) hormones (peptides) at pituitary stalk
Portal system
Anterior pituitary and its hormones (peptides)

Fig. 11.14
(on right of figure) Master gland to show glands controlled by pituitary (thyroid, adrenals, ovary, testes) Trophic (tropins like "gonadotropins")
(on left of figure) not using other endocrine glands (Growth hormone and Prolactin)

Non-trophic hormones
(not where pituitary acts as master gland to control other glands)

GH - 200 a.a. -bone, muscle, not fat, -> liver to make somatomedins
GH - gigantism (bones grow long if too much GH when young), dwarfism (if too little GH when young), acromegaly (bones grow too thick if too much GH when already grown up, danger of GH abuse), abuse by body builders, dangers of extracts,, now available through recombinant DNA research

Prolactin - milk production, like GH (same ancestral gene)

Trophic hormones
(like gonadotropins) "Master Gland"
sex hormones from pituitary (more details later):
LH (female) = ICSH (male); (luteinizing) (interstitial cell)
FSH (follicle)
non-sex trophic hormones from pituitary:
TSH (thyroid)
ACTH (adrenal cortex)

TRANSPARENCY (From intro book)
Review - same material, intro course

Thyroid hormones

(recall that thyroid was used as hormone example in first lecture outline)
Influence on metabolism, but not as obviously as epinephrine, insulin, glucagon or even glucocorticoids.

Fig. 11.25
Negative feedback with pituitary
Hypothalamus -TRF-> + Ant. Pituit. -TSH->+ Thyroid -> thyroxine-
- neck thyroxin (T4), triiodothyroxine (T3) iodine, sea food (and iodized salt)

Fig. 11.3 (also shown in an earlier lecture)
T3 and T4

TRANSPARENCY (Figs 11.24, 11.26)
Goiter (thyroid overgrows if too little iodine in diet)
Cretinism if too little in infant, hypothyroid, hyperthyroid
Change in salmon during salt to fresh water change, metamorphosis in frog
Problem of radioactive iodine (like from reactor leaks) - helps to take large doses of non-radioactive iodine to compete

Adrenal gland

Fig. 11.20
Adrenal cortex - Glucocorticoids stimulate metabolism, inhibits inflamation.
JFKennedy had too little glucocorticoids (needed replacement therapy) which would create a situation of no feedback Addison's - too much ACTH (darkens skin like MSH).
pro-opiomelanocortin - big peptide cleaved to ACTH, MSH, endorphins, enkephalins
Emphasize regulation, negative feedback

Fig. 11.18
Zona glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids
Zona fasciculata and reticularis - glucocorticoids and androgens
Mineralocorticoids, the best known being Aldosterone helps kidney retain salt
Adrenalectomy causes salt loss and salt appetite.
Sweat glands are not as efficient at retaining salt as kidney.
That is why "Gatorade" (electrolyte) is used by athletes.
Salt is also lost in cystic fibrosis (mutation of CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator)

Female reproductive cycle

good example of Regulation, Negative feedback
CHAULKBOARD DIAGRAM
Hypothalamus - RF's (peptides)
(chaulkboard diagram is also here, peptides in black, steroids in red)
Pituitary makes peptide hormones "gonado-trophic hormones" (gonadotropins, FSH and LH)
gonads (ovaries) make steroid hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
Feedback system plus effects on endometrium (lining of uterus)

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates estrogen release from follicle
estrogen inhibits FSH
estrogen turns on LH (lutenizing hormone) release
estrogen begins buildup of endometrium
surge of LH causes ovulation
then follicle becomes corpus luteum that puts out progesterone
progesterone inhibits LH and FSH
progesterone also stimulates buildup of endometrium
to finish cycle, low FSH & LH which lets estrogen and progesterone go down
(corpus luteum starts to go away)
with low estrogen and progesterone, endometrium breaks down (menstruation)
with low estrogen and progesterone, pituitary is not inhibited so FSH starts
(if pregnant, HCG [human corionic gonadotropin] maintains corpus luteum
progesterone (from maintained corpus luteum) maintains endometrium
Here is a primary follicle, a growing follicle, the mature follicle, and the corpus luteum from our histology course.

Human corionic gonadotropin
Menstruation in primates
Estrus cycle - dogs heat 2x/yr, cats 3x/yr
Rabbits reflex ovulators
Pill Progesterone and Estrogen inhibit ovulation
28 day pill 7 duds: 1st 4 days, last 3
"combination pill"
Weight gain, circulation problems
lower proportion of estrogen
Rhythm - sperm viable 48 hr, ovum 15 hr: 3-4 day abstinance

The male pattern
FSH for spermatogenesis
LH (ICSH) to stimulate interstitial cells to release testosterone

Glands not controlled by pituitary

Adrenal medulla

Fig. 9.8
while on the topic of the adrenal gland,
Adrenal medulla (vs cortex under pituitary control)- Epinephrine, (alias adrenalin) - activates body
Autonomic (vs voluntary) motor control: sympathetic (vs parasympathetic)
Sympathetic nervous system uses norepinephrine at postganglionic synapses.
Sympathetic - "fight or flight"
Helps in metabolism to release glucose to blood stream
Muscles activity up, peripheral circulation and digestion inhibited
Heart rate goes up

Glucose (insulin and Glucagon) and diabetes
was moved from here to earlier

Calcium homeostasis

TRANSPARENCY (From introductory book)
Thyroid 2 glands (pituit - thyroxine TSH) vs:
Thyroid - thyrocalcitonin - blood Ca2+ down
Parathyroid - parathormone - blood Ca2+ up (from bones)
near thyroid gland in neck
Vitamin D sunlight, rickets, fish oil, hormone, absorption from gut
Osteoporosis - bone deterioration with age especially in women
Ca2+ very important, muscle (later), nerve (later)

Fig. 11.28
review, parathyroid hormone

Fig. 19.18b
PTH increases blood Ca2+
Osteoclast uses enzymes and acid to dissolve bone CaPO4

When calcium is needed a lot, bone depleted.
Osteoporosis, more common in women because of Ca2+ use in lactation.

Fig. 19.22
PTH effect on bone shown again here plus:
In kidneys, Ca2+ reabsorption is increased
and
In kidneys, 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 is made
(and that, in turn, increases intestinal absorption)

Working the vitamin D topic backward:

Fig. 19.21
kidney enzyme (1-alpha-hydroxylase) acts on 25-hyrdoxyvitamin D (from liver)

and

Fig. 19.20
Vitamin D from sunlight in skin
(plus liver and kidney shown in this figure)

Fig. 19.23
Calcitonin from the thyroid does the opposite

Steroids, etc

Fig. 2.23
structures of steroids
Structures of cholesterol, cortisol, testosterone, estradiol

Fig. 11.2
reactions of steroids
shows structures and locations of secretion
Interestingly, Cholesterol -> -> Progersteone (corpus luteum) -> ->Testosterone (Leydig cells) -> estradiol (follicles).

Fig. 11.5
steroid hormone receptor is protein that dimerizes
each receptor binds an HRE (hormone response element) (DNA sequence)
mechanism of hormone action is to activate gene transcription (into mRNA)

Estrogen

Menopause (pause in the menes) ["change of life" at about 50] - lack of estrogen.
(Some hysterectomy or ovarian cancer surgeries might also deplete because of ovarectomy).
Many symptoms, hot flashes most obvious short term effect.
Osteoporosis most obvious long term effect.
For me, this site worked with explorer, not netscape - estrogen (hormone) replacement therapy
Hotly contested (a lot of negative press lately), partly because estrogen increases chances of breast cancer.
There is a drug, Tamoxifen that blocks estrogen's effects, differently in different tissues.

Recent literature

J.L.Turgeon, D.P.McDonnell, K.A.Martin & P.M.Wise, Hormone therapy: Physiological complexity belies theraputic strategy, Science 304, 1269-1273, 2004
Estrogen and progesterone receptors in cardiovascular, neural, immune, gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal systems.
Menopause (average age 51) vasomotor flashes, vaginal dryness, urinary symptoms, osteoporosis, CHD (coronary heart disease.
Hence chronic estrogen therapy (ET) for CHD and osteoporosis.
A well intentioned study, WHI (women's health initiative) tested placebo, estrogen & estrogen-progestin.
Discontinued because of increase in breasst cancer, CHD, stroke and venous thromboembolism (but they did decrease fractures and colon cancer)
Human ovary: 17beta-estradiol.(E2) AND estrone (E1)
Study used conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) extracted from pregnant horse urine, many estrogens including sulfated estrogens.
Why this matters is that there are several types of estrogen receptors differentially activated by different estrogens.
Study used continuous oral administration, and hormone through hepatic portal system highly activates estrogen receptors in the liver, changing important proteins like angiotensin precursor.
Transdermal patch would be very different.
Women is study were fatter than usual.
Human progesterone vs study's medoxyprogersteone acetate (MPA), again affecting different receptors differently, also MPA activates glucocorticoid receptor.
There are several estrogen receptors, alpha and beta. and many ways they influence transcription.
"Antiestrogen" tamoxifen is antagonist in breast but agonist in bone and uterus, so now called SERM (selective estrogen receptor modulator).
Better SERMs are being found.

Androgens

Anabolic steroids - muscle growth, bone growth, increased hemoglobin
There is an androgen from the adrenal - DHEA dehydroepiandrosterone
Increased secretion of testosterone at puberty has many obvious effects including on larynx
Absence of androgens by castration decreases seminal vesicle and prostate
The whitish structure in this figure is the seminal vesicle
In this figure, the seminal vesicle of castrated and normal mice are compared

Fig. 20.14
Interestingly, many of testosterone's effects are mediated by estradiol-17beta, made by aromatase (in a process called "aromatization," note aromatic [in the organic chemistry sense] ring).
DHT (and several subsequent metabolites) made by 5alpha-reductase

Fig. 20.7
This step takes place in cells

When I typed "five alpha reductase" or the like into my search engine, I got hits on hair loss, concerning male pattern hair loss (androgenetic alopecia) accelerated by DHT and alleviated by a drug, Propecia

Some wierd disorders

5alpha-reductase deficiency -> "testes-at-twelve" (at puberty, testes descend, clitoris becomes penis etc when there is enough testosterone to overcome deficit) There is a pedigree in the
Dominican republic

androgen receptor mutation (androgen insensitivity syndrome [AIS]) -> testicular feminization, children think they are females until there is no menstruation

There are androgens from adrenal, so with Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, CAH, clitoris is large and behavior is "tomboy"

Signal transduction

TRANSPARENCY (From introductory book)
"gene"
sequence coding for protein (mRNA) is copied from exons with introns spliced out
"upstream" of gene, proteins binding promoter and enhancer regulate transcription

Fig. 11.4
steroid hormone
Carrier protein, receptor, DNA

Fig. 11.6
thyroid hormone
Carrier protein-T4, receptor-T3, DNA

Fig. 11.7
thyroid hormone
involves retinoic acid

Fig. 11.8
Remember signal transduction for G protein coupled receptor

TRANSPARENCY (From introductory book)
integrates the above point with epinephrine evolution of glucose

Prostaglandins, etc

Fig. 11.33
prostaglandins (mediators of inflammation) are derived from fatty acid (arachidonic acid, 20:4) using cyclooxygenase (COX)
Prostaglandins have different actions in different places; take platelet aggregation -- TXA2 stimulates clumping, PGI2 prevents them from sticking to walls of vessels; it is the TXA2 aspect that is why you take aspirin to prevent heart attack and should not take aspirin before surgery (etc.).
leukotrienes (mediators of inflammation) ... use lipoxygenase
NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammtory drugs) aspirin, ibuprofen, inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX-1 & 2) nonspecifically, problems in stomach
Celebrex, Vioxx, Bextra inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX-2); popular for arthritus, but Merck pulled Vioxx 10/04 for increasing cardiovascular problems, and later Bextra was pulled.
Aspirin is anti-inflammatory, anallgesic, antipyretic, anticoagulant, implicated in Reye's syndrome.

The Biology department's primary expert on endocrinology is Dr. Asa who is director of research at the St. Louis Zoo. As an adjunct Professor in SLU's Biology department, she teaches the popular course, "Introductory Endocrinology" BL A450-01

Exam questions from 2004 - 2008 relevant to this outline

Loss of what hormone would cause an adrenalectomized animal to crave salt?

aldosterone

What is the name of the disorder of too much growth hormone as an adult?

acromegaly

Vitamin D helps to keep the blood levels of what substance correct?

Ca2+

On what kind of molecule would you find a sequence known as a "hormone response element (HRE)?"

DNA

Historically, shortage of what mineral caused some inland people to develop goiter?

iodine

Why are alcoholic beverages contraindicated to stay hydrated in times of heat stress? (Make sure your answer says what happens to the relevant hormone level.)

alcohol inhibits ADH, more water is lost through kidney

Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) block converrsion of what fatty acid to prostaglandins?

arachidonic

After ovulation, the estrogen secreting follicle turns into a tissue that secretes what hormone?

progesterone

In the process where epinephrine causes glucose release from liver, what enzyme does cAMP activate?

protein kinase A

What kind of chemical is a gonadotropin?

peptide

The birth control pill feeds back to inhibit what pituitary peptide (to prevent maturation of the follicle)?

FSH

What does the osteoclast do to assist in Ca2+ homeostasis?

cause bone to release Ca2+

A receptor (protein) for T3 makes a heterodimer with a receptor for what substance?

retinoic acid

Hyperplasia of what gland would androgenize a female?

adrenal

What pituitary hormone maintains the cells that secrete testosterone?

LH

What syndrome results from 5a-reductase deficiency?

testes at twelve

What treatment has been standard for relief of hot flashes?

estrogen replacement therapy

Name one molecule in the biosynthetic pathway between cholesterol and testosterone.

progesterone

Within the ovary, what tissue produces estrogen?

follicle

Why is the term "anabolic" applied to some hormones?

growth (muscles, bone, hemoglobin)

Where are the cell bodies of the cells whose axon terminals release ADH and oxytocin?

hypothalamus

To mediate many of the effects of testosterone, aromatase converts it to what?

estradiol

After the alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein binds GTP, what does it do to GTP?

breaks it to GDP (and P)

What close relative of retinal (retinene, the part of rhodopsin that absorbs light) is important in the activation of the hormone response element by triiodothyroxine?

retinoic acid

ACTH triggers the release of what hormone from its target gland?

cortisol

What is the tissue responsible for producing the gonadotropin that supports the corpus luteum early in pregnancy?

chorion

Why is such a small amount of thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH needed?

because portal system delivers straight to anterior pituitary

Although dopamine is a transmitter itself, it can be converted into what other neurotransmitter by the enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase?

norepinephrine

What hormone would put calcium back into bones?

calcitonin

A surge of what peptide leads to ovulation?

LH

What second messenger activates protein kinase when the beta-adrenergic receptor of a liver cell binds epinephrine?

cAMP

Increased testosterone at puberty affect what organ to turn sopranos into altos?

larynx

What would happen to the TSH level if dietary iodine were deficient?

go up since negative feedback from thyroxine is decreased

What cleavage product of pro-opiomelanocortin would be high in Addison's disease?

ACTH

How would calcitonin regulate Ca2+ at the level of the kidney?

decrease resorption

In the term "gonadotropin," what does the suffix "tropin" refer to?

has trophic effect

What would happen instead of increase in bone length if growth hormone were too high in the adult?

bones would get thicker

In the old days, what would cod liver oil be used for?

vitamin D (and A) replacement

In the pathway 7-dehydrocholesterol -> vitamin D3 -> 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 ->1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, where does the first conversion take place?

in the skin

Osteoclasts contribute to the breakdown of CaPO4 plus what additional component, a protein, in bone?

collagen

A surge of LH mediates ovulation plus the conversion of the follicle into what tissue?

corpus luteum

What is it called when, because of low progesterone, the endometrium is no longer supported?

menstruation

What hormone supports the endometrium during pregnancy?

progesterone

What effect does calcitonin have on the kidney?

Allows for CaPO4 loss in urine

Testosterone is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by what enzyme?

5-alpha-reductase

Tamoxifen used to be called an antiestrogen but might now be better referred to as a SERM (selective estrogen receptor modulator). Why?

antagonist in some tissues but agonist in others

A heterodimer of receptors for thyroid hormone and retinoic acid (together with their respective ligands, thyroid hormone and retinoic acid) binds to what specific location on what molecule?

response element on DNA

Estradiol-17b is made by aromatase from what steroid (the immediate precursor)?

testosterone

Give a reason why the exact same mixture of hormones might have different effects in a woman if given orally vs via a transdermal patch.

would go to liver by hepatic portal vessel if taken by mouth

A steroid hormone receptor is famous for binding the hormone as well as what major macromolecule?

DNA

Give the name of a class of molecules produced by enzymes acting on arachidonic acid (20:4).

prostaglandins (leukotrienes)


What type of chemical is the product of the Leydig (interstitial) cells?

steroid

In terms of how they inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, how would a COX2 inhibitor differ from traditional NSAIDS like aspirin?

aspirin was non-specific (COX1 & 2)

Chemically, what type of molecule is a gonadotropin?

peptide

Where is the receptor for steroid hormones?

inside the cell

What would be the most common reason to administer oxytocin (or a synthetic version of this hormone)?

induce labor

Why would very small amounts of TRH be needed for adequate homeostatic control?

portal vessel from hypothalamus to pituitary means that it is not diluted by the systemic circulation

Although steroids in the birth control pill would have a trophic effect, building up the endometrium, they block pregnancy. By what mechanism?

by inhibiting FSH and LH, they prevent ovulation

What is the effect of the hormone of the adrenal medulla on heart rate?

adrenalin increases heart rate, of course

A lot of hormone from the parathyroid gland would decrease calcium in what notable reservoir in the body?

bone

Ovulation, as well as the conversion of the follicle to the corpus luteum, is induced by a surge in what pituitary peptide?

LH

PTH, the hormone of the parathyroid, acts on the kidney to stimulate Ca2+ reabsorption and inhibit PO4- reabsorption. What other effect does PTH have on kidney to help to increase plasma Ca2+?

formation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (increase 1alpha-hydroxylase activity

What famous steroid hormone is an intermediate in the conversion of progesterone to estradiol-17beta?

testosterone (also androstenedione)

A DNA-binding domain is a hallmark of what kind of molecule that binds to a hormone response element?

steroid hormone receptor protein

Testosterone is converted by 5alpha-reductase or by aromatase into (name one of these steroids)?

dihydrotestosterone, estradiol-17beta

How does cAMP activate the kinase?

binds to and removes inhibitory subunit from catalytic subunit

Answer one of the following for the precursor that cyclooxygenase turns to prostaglandins and lipoxygenase turns into leukotrienes - (1) name it, or (2) say what kind of molecule it is, or (3) where does it come from?

arachidonic acid ((20:4), fatty acid, from membrane phospholipid

Who would suffer from acromegaly?

adults with too much growth hormone

Why would your skin be dark if you had Addison's disease (inadequate cortisol, no feedback, too much ACTH)?

ACTH mimics melanocyte stimulating hormone

Chemically, what type of hormones are the hormones of the adrenal cortex?

steroids

If estrogen and progesterone maintain the endometrium, how come women taking the birth control pill still have menstruation?

estrogen and progesterone are not given for a few days

Why would hyperplasia of the adrenal masculinize a female?

adrenal cortex makes anabolic steroids like testosterone, too much if there is hyperplasia

Why is the area upstream of a gene's coding sequence relevant to the actions of retinoic acid, thyroxine and steroid hormones?

this area is the promoter where steroid hormone receptors , retinoic acid receptors, etc bind

The G protein coupled receptor signals to the next molecule in the cascade, namely the G protein. Why is it called a G protein?

binds GTP

Why is the term "neurosecretion" used for some hormones and give one example.

neurons with axons release chemicals from their terminals near blood vessels, ADH, oxytocin, releasing hormones

What happens if there is too much growth hormone in the fully-grown adult?

bones grow in thickness, not length, acromegaly

What leads to hypertrophy of the thyroid gland (goiter)?

deficiency of iodine

Why do they need to build fish ladders beside tall dams?

salmon go up their native stream to spawn

What type of chemical is the hormone secreted by the follicle?

steroid

After implantation, what peptide stimulates the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion?

human chorionic gonadotropin

What important cell, other than the hormone-secreting cells, is present in the follicle?

the egg

What type of chemical is the hormone that has a trophic effect, causing the Leydig cells (interstitial cells) to release their hormone?

peptide

H2CO3 is split in osteoclasts. Where do the two portions go and why?

H+ for acidity into bone on one side of the osteoclast, HCO3- exchange with Cl- on the other side to start Cl- toward the bone to make HCl

Which hormone from a gland inside the neck has the same effect on plasma calcium ion concentration as 1,25-dihydroxyvitaminD3?

PTH

Describe why the system of the hepatic portal vessel might be relevant in estrogen replacement therapy.

Any chemicals, if taken orally, might be converted to other things by the liver

Testosterone gets converted to other steroids for its activity. Tell me one of the enzymes that effects these conversions.

5-alpha reductase (to 5 alpha DHT) or aromatase (to estradiol-17beta

One part of the retinoid X receptor (RXR) binds 9-cis retinoic acid. What does the other part of this molecule bind?

DNA (the RARE)

Why doesn't the alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein activate the adenylate cyclase indefinitely?

it has GTPase activity (etc.)

Why would a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) be so potentially useful for bone health?

have the beneficial effect on osteoblasts but not promote breast cancer or cardiovascular problems

Why might you want to inhibit the normal function of osteoclasts?

to stave off osteoporosis

Many hormone receptors are on the cell membrane. How can steroid hormone receptors work when they are inside the cell?

by binding steroid hormones and also binding DNA at hormone response element

ACTH is cleaved from what peptide precursor?

proopiomelanocortin

What organ are the steroid-secreting zona fasciculate and zona reticularis part of?

adrenal cortex

Out of a long laundry list, tell me one precursor of the hormone from the adrenal medulla.

tyrosine, l-DOPA, dopamine, norepnephrine

Tell me one of several molecules that are precursors for all of these: hydrocortisone, testosterone, and estradiol-17beta.

cholesterol, pregnenolone, progesterone

"A gene is the coding sequence for a protein." The truth but not the whole truth. Relative to this, where is the hormone response element?

upstream of the coding sequence

What is the precursor of leukotrienes, and where (in the cell's anatomy) does it come from?

arachidonic acid, in membrane lipid

Why did COX-2 inhibitors show so much promise, and why were some pulled from the market?

reliece arthritic inflammation without interfering with gastric mucosa, increased chance of heart attack

By what mechanism is estrogen good for bones?

it promotes osteoblasts

What is it called when a hypothyroid condition as an infant leads to deficient neural development?

cretinism

What is the condition where there is too much ACTH? - Answer one: (1) name of condition (2) What is there too little of? Or (3) Why does the skin get dark?

Addison's disease, too little cortisol, ACTH is like MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone)

The adrenal cortex is famous for producing androgens, glucocorticoids and (what else?).

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

Norepinephrine is converted to epinephrine to be the major hormone of what (specific) gland.

Adrenal medulla

Why would cod liver oil be a useful dietary supplement for some people?

Vitamin D

Why was there the conventional wisdom that estrogen by patch was safer than oral administration?

Swallowed, the liver could make many other products

Why was the women's health initiative study discontinued?

Increase in breast cancer, coronary heart disease

For "androgenic alopecia" tell me either (1) what these words mean, or (2) what an enzyme or the hormonal product it catalyses has to do with that.

Male pattern baldness, 5 alpha reductase makes DHT

Address the terms "paraventricular" and "supraoptic" in ONE of the following ways: (1) What part of the brain are they in? (2) How did those nuclei get those names? (3) What structure is the output of this neurosecretion? Or (4) What are the hormones?

hypothalamus, around the (third) ventricle and above the optic chiasm, posterior pituitary, ADH or oxytocin

For one portal system, the first capillary bed is in the pituitary stalk. Answer ONE of these (1) Where are the cell bodies responsible for secretion into this vascular bed? Or (2) Where (specifically) is the second capillary bed?

hypothalamus, anterior pituitary

Distinguish between what happens with too much growth hormone as a child vs as an adult.

become a giant, acromegaly

How come women who took the birth control pill still menstruated?

out of the 28 days, the steroids are not in the last 5 days so the endometrium is not supported

What are the two different functions of the pituitary gonadotropins in the male?

FSH spermatogenesis, LH getting the interstitial cells of Leydig to secrete testosterone

A surge in LH converts the follicle to the corpus luteum and (what else does it achieve?).

causes ovulation

Why doesn't the endometrium break down once FSH and LH stop maintaining the corpus luteum when implantation has occurred?

HCG supports the corpus luteum, so there is still progesterone

Starting with 7-Dehydrocholesterol, what is the order of action of the 3 separate ORGANS in the production of the active form of vitamin D?

skin, liver, kidney

A hormone from the thyroid has (what effect on the kidney?) for calcium homeostasis.

calcitonin stimulates excretion of Ca2+

Progesterone is the precursor of what two sex steroids?

testosterone and estradiol

Where, specifically, is the hormone response element?

on the DNA upstream of the coding sequence for the protein

Why would a mutation in the receptor that caused insensitivity to androgens have the effect it has in androgen insensitivity syndrome?

testicular feminization b/c there is no response to hormones like testosterone

Why at the time, was the availability of new COX-2 inhibitors heralded as such an important development?

arthritis symptoms taken care of without the COX-1 interference with the gastric mucosa

The thyroid receptor makes a heterodimer with a receptor for what signaling molecule?

retinoic acid

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